By Tim Garrett: Thermodynamics of the Economy (interviews and papers)

Tim Garrett

Tim Garrett is the most important and least recognized physicist on the planet because he discovered a theory that explains and quantifies the relationship between wealth and energy consumption.

Here is Garrett’s home page with links to his papers:

http://www.inscc.utah.edu/~tgarrett/Economics/Economics.html

Here is a wikipedia page that explains his theory:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_relation

Here is a new interview with Tim Garrett:

http://www.ecoshock.org/2015/05/fires-raise-chernobyl-radiation-again.html

I’ve listened to Garrett’s previous interviews many times and never tire of them because there are so many difficult and important concepts to absorb.

http://www.ecoshock.org/2014/07/the-big-picture-like-it-or-not.html

http://www.ecoshock.org/2010/11/atmosphere-of-crisis.html

https://archive.org/details/IsClimateChangeUnstoppable

Here is a list of Garrett’s work compiled by Frank White:

https://citizenactionmonitor.wordpress.com/civilization-economic-collapse-links-to-all-posts-by-or-about-dr-tim-garretts-research/

Here is an August 2020 paper co-authored with Steve Keen:

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0237672

4 thoughts on “By Tim Garrett: Thermodynamics of the Economy (interviews and papers)”

Rob Mielcarski says:

October 4, 2018 at 3:51 pm

A new interview with Tim Garrett…

https://www.ecoshock.org/2018/10/tim-garrett-the-physics-of-clouds-collapse.html

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Rob Mielcarski says:

October 4, 2018 at 3:52 pm

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Rob Mielcarski says:

November 22, 2018 at 8:34 am

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Rob Mielcarski says:

December 11, 2019 at 5:23 pm

Tim Garrett recently published a FAQ on his blog that answers many common questions about his theory.

http://nephologue.blogspot.com/2019/11/frequently-asked-questions-about.html

Frequently Asked Questions about the Nephologue theory of economic growth!

The theory of economic growth I’ve tried to explain is pretty foreign to many. There’s a lot of questions that get repeated. This post aims to clarify what are probably understandable concerns. Any others?

Do you conclude, that global energy consumption and global GDP has been practically perfectly coupled in the past? This would seem at odds with the data
No they are not coupled. The relationship between energy consumption and GDP tends to change with time as civilization becomes more or less energy efficient. What is coupled is global energy consumption and the time integral (or summation) of GDP since the beginning of civilization.

Can we have a “steady-state” (non-growing) economy?
In general, no, as nothing in the universe is independent from its environment. Everything constantly evolves. Steady-states are only useful fictions that can be imagined to apply when things are evolving slowly compared to some other phenomenon of interest. With respect to our economy, we simultaneously discover and deplete energy resources. Maintaining steady-state wealth would require we discover and deplete these resources at precisely the same rate for a long period of time. Maintaining a steady-state GDP requires that net resources are never depleted.

From where comes the statement that we would need to build approximately 1 nuclear power plant (1 GW?) every day in order to (just) stabilize CO2 emissions?
The current annual rate of growth of global energy consumption is 2.3%, or a few hundred GW. In a fossil fuel economy, CO2 emissions rise with energy consumption. It is often advocated that increasing energy efficiency can stall energy consumption growth. What I have shown is that this is only true locally. Globally increasing energy efficiency accelerates growth through a generalized version of Jevon’s Paradox. This leaves switching to non-carbon fuel sources as the only option for meeting the goal of stabilizing emissions while growing the economy. Divide a few hundred GW annual growth by the number of days in a year and one obtains the figure of 1GW of non-carbon energy per day. That’s roughly one nuclear power plant per day.

Can we meet a 2 degrees C warming target and maintain a healthy economy?
No. At least it is very hard to see how. Civilization health is predicated on consuming energy, and at least for the foreseeable future the energy source is primarily carbon based. Economic health is based on consuming energy at ever faster rates. Maintaining this energy growth would seem incompatible with achieving lower carbon dioxide emissions, especially to levels that would prevent the world from exceeding a 2 degree warming target.

Evidence shows that Jevons’ Paradox is wrong. Rebound effects that counteract efficiency gains are small.
Studies showing “rebound” rather than “backfire” have focused on particular technological sectors (e.g. lighting) without considering knock-on effects on the entirely of the rest of the global economy. Making such a calculation would be extremely difficult. If the economy is only considered as a whole, then the problem becomes tractable, and global efficiency gains lead ultimately to global acceleration of energy consumption.

GDP numbers are unreliable. They should not be used to calculate any relationship between wealth and energy.
Yes, GDP numbers are uncertain, although this is true of any measurement. Unfortunately, the magnitude of the uncertainty is not stated by reporting agencies like the United Nations. However, there are two things that are in the statistic’s favor. First, the countries that contribute the most to global GDP are likely always those with the greatest interest in having something at least close to a truthful number. Second, the calculation of Wealth discussed in this work is a summation of GDP over all of history. Unless there is a constant bias in the global GDP statistics one way or another, errors from one year to the next will have a tendency to average out towards zero. Further, the most recent statistics, which contribute most to total wealth due to their comparative size, should be the most accurate. Admittedly there is some faith in this statement, but GDP statistics are probably the most robust macroeconomic statistic we have.

Isn’t population growth the fundamental driver of increasing energy consumption?
The physics (and perhaps history) suggests that a better perspective is that population growth is rather a symptom. When civilization consumes energy with sufficient efficiency that it is able to experience net growth into new resources, then some combination of increasing standard of living and increasing population follows. It may sound odd to say it, but people are physical objects, and it takes massive amounts of energy consumption and matter to create and sustain an adult human. Without increasing access to reserves of energy and matter, population growth cannot be sustained.

GDP is only a measure of the part of human activity that is monetized. Even now, GDP doesn’t include the work of self-sufficient farmers, or the work of unpaid housewives or retired people.
Yes, and that is entirely the point. At the moment of engagement, the vast majority of our activities do not require a financial transaction. We do not pay to have conversation, enjoy a meal, or clean the kitchen. We may pay to acquire access to conversation (e.g. by purchasing gasoline so we can drive to a friend’s house), to have a dish on the table (e.g. by buying food), or to live in a house (by buying real estate). But I believe that financial transactions themselves are instantaneous affairs whose value is a representation of their capacity to increase our ability to do things in the future. This is a subtle but very important distinction. The GDP is a tally of the instantaneous monetary exchanges that increase the right to access something in the future. Wealth is about what we can do now. GDP adds to our Wealth, but only Wealth can directly be linked to activities that consume energy. At any given instant, human activity and the GDP are two totally separate things.

Are you stating that value is tied to the amount of energy that goes into producing an item, what some call the “emergy”?
No, not at all. Consider that judgement of the current value is usually totally agnostic to its past. It’s pretty hard to know all what went into bringing a salmon all the way from a river in Alaska to the dinner table. And ultimately what drives the price is the usual mix of current market forces. Of course the present emerges from the past, so it’s not totally crazy to imagine that past energy consumption can be related to current prices — after all why would people consume energy without some expectation that it might eventually support a future financial exchange? Nonetheless, there is a much more direct link between current value and current rates of energy consumption than between current value and past rates. The universe at any given time only knows the present.

Has any one else tried to reproduce your result of the constant λ relating wealth to energy consumption?
The most detailed investigation I am aware of is by Richard Nolthenius, a professor at Cabrillo College. His independent examination obtains a similar result.

Energy is just one factor of production among many, including labor and capital.
This argument ignores that the dissipation of potential energy is fundamental to any process in the universe. Energy is not just one factor among many. It is the motivating force that enables anything to happen. People cannot be sustained or do labor without energy. Physical capital has no meaning or value without energy to connect its elements through physical flows of, e.g. people, raw materials, and information. In an effort towards simplicity, one can focus on energy alone.

Wealth is a stock and GDP is a flow. You cannot compare energy consumption (a flow) to a stock.
That wealth is best characterized as a stock may be the standard perception. Certainly it is the most obvious. But I don’t believe it is necessarily the best. Civilization is an open thermodynamic system. What that means is that it dissipates energy and consumes matter, and it gives off waste heat and exhales CO2 and garbage. Thermodynamically, one could represent the size of this open system in two ways, both related. One is as the potential difference, or gradient, required to drive these flows. The other is the flows themselves. They are both two sides of the same coin. Wealth is an abstract financial representation of either. GDP on the other hand is a measure of the increase in the potential and associated flows due to a net convergence of matter in civilization. A measurable GDP occurs only when we consume more matter than we get rid of as waste.

It is inappropriate to use market exchange rate (MER) measures of GDP. Purchasing power parity (PPP) measures should be used instead.
PPP measures of GDP adjust MER measures to account for relative price differences of baskets of goods between nations. A well-known illustration of this is that the MER price for a Big Mac can vary widely from, say, Norway to India. From a personal perspective, making such adjustments makes sense. It helps us better compare relative standards of living. But from a thermodynamic standpoint that considers the world as an aggregate whole, with people mixed in with everything else that dissipates energy, PPP has less obvious utility. If the calculations are done right, positive and negative PPP adjustments from one nation to another should add up to zero. A basket of goods for the world as a whole can’t be compared to any other world.

Do your energy consumption estimations include the energy captured by photosynthesis of crops?
No they don’t, at least not directly. But my feeling is that they shouldn’t, although for reasons that are subtle. Sunlight is all around us, but some other energy resource is required to make the sunlight accessible to civilization through crop production. Combustion energy is required to clear grassland and forests, either by burning them or mechanical extraction. Burning further fixes the nitrogen that is required as fertilizer, and where there is nothing left to burn we manufacture free nitrogen with fossil fuels. Deserts are bathed in sunlight but have little crop energy of value until we burn other fuels to irrigate and fertilize. Accessible energy and total energy are not the same.

Energy is not value. A country like Switzerland has no energy resources of its own at all, but its currency is strong.
The relationship between energy consumption and wealth applies to the world as a whole. Unlike the global economy, which has no connection to any other world, Switzerland is not an isolated system. It maintains its wealth through energy consumption just as any other location, but much of the primary energy consumption is done elsewhere in places to which Switzerland is connected, through such things as its banking system. As long as the world as a whole has access to sufficient access to primary energy supplies, and Switzerland is deeply connected to the rest of the world, its economy will be fine.

The correlation between energy and wealth you find means nothing. Correlation does not mean causation.
Sure, except it is not a simple correlation, but rather a scalar transformation. Normally, where there is a linear correlation between two quantities, the ratio of the two quantities is variable unless the two quantities pass through the origin (0,0) instead of having an intercept. GDP and energy consumption are an example of two correlated quantities, where the ratio is changing with time even though the two quantities generally are linearly related for periods of a decade or two. I would agree that GDP and energy consumption are not causally related (at least not without considering a couple other things). Wealth and energy consumption are not the same. They have a fixed ratio within reasonable observational uncertainty. Terming this ratio λ as an eigenvalue describing the system may be more mathematically appropriate.

Your work omits consideration of the role of debt.
When considering the global economy, where wealth includes all aspects of civilization, who is the debt to? It appears to be me, that when everything is properly accounted for, global debt must add to zero because any remainder cannot be to anyone or thing that is not already part of the global financial system. Perhaps some day we will have debts to our Alien Overlords. But until then, for answering global questions at least, debt seems like a red herring.

By considering wealth as an accumulation of all past production you fail to consider depreciation.
It might at first seem so, but no, this is not the case. Depreciation (or more physically, decay) is very much a part of the model. A particularly elegant result (IMHO) that comes out of the framework is that inflation and decay are two sides of the same coin. Wealth is not the sum of past nominal GDP but instead the sum of real GDP. This difference is calculated through the standard economic quantity called the GDP deflator. There are some subtleties: for example in the very general framework I consider a closer measure of this depreciation or decay might include things like unemployment, as absent retooling we forget and our skills become less needed.

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For explaining why humans are odd
To Varki and Brower we applaud
A great mystery they solved
With denial we evolved
And created the Higgs, overshoot, and God

Denial not only makes us believe in god, it is god, because denial created us, and denial may destroy us.

The singular emergence of human intelligence, and its ability to write and read this paragraph, evolved in a gene controlled machine with an unusually powerful computer, that was created by an improbable simultaneous adaptation for an extended theory of mind with denial of reality, and whose complexity was enabled by the increased energy per gene provided by mitochondria, that resulted from an accidental endosymbiosis of two prokaryotes, powered by an unintuitive chemiosmotic proton pump, that originated in an alkaline hydrothermal vent, on 1 of 40 billion planets, in 1 of 100 billion galaxies, and that planet had an improbable store of photosynthetic and geothermal generated fossil energy, that the species leveraged to understand and appreciate, the peak of what may be possible in the universe, before it vanished, because it denied the consequences of its success.

The human brain, the God it believes in, and the overshoot it enabled and denies, all resulted from the same improbable genetic adaptation that occurred about 100,000 years ago.

Varki’s MORT theory explains much of the strange water we swim in every day, and also explains why most can’t see the water.

Denial is the reality that must be most aggressively denied to avoid collapsing the house of cards that keeps us functioning.

The most amazing thing about human overshoot is that we do not discuss it.

You know you are in trouble when reduced CO2 emissions from an economic collapse caused by low-cost oil depletion is not sufficient to prevent civilization collapse from climate change caused by previously emitted CO2.

Our only choices are do we want to fall from a higher elevation later, or climb down from a lower elevation sooner?

What we should do but won’t do will happen anyway, unfortunately too late.

Things that can’t continue usually stop too late.

Truth is like poetry and most people hate poetry.

All 8 billion of us owe our existence to a six-inch layer of topsoil and the fact it rains; 6 billion of us also owe our existence to nitrogen fertilizer created from natural gas by Haber-Bosch factories.

Each time history repeats itself, the price goes up.

Thermodynamics, expressed through genetics, creates beings incapable of not maximizing energy consumption.

Denial is evolution’s solution for permitting intelligence to coexist with our (Maximum Power Principle) subconscious decision makers.

While it digs its own grave, all the mind can do is entertain fantasies and create excuses.

When the only paying job in town is sawing off the branch which you are sitting on, you….saw away! You might refuse to saw and hang yourself from that branch, but the end is the same anyway, and that option is much less fun. — Cynic @Megacancer

Never underestimate the human capacity for denial. — Gail Zawacki

It is remarkable that a brain emerged from a cloud of hydrogen and figured out the laws of physics that governed, and possibly made inevitable, its own creation and destruction.

We have met the oblivious and they are us.

All 8 billion of us originated from one small tribe in Africa about 100,000 years ago that gave birth to a child with an improbable mutation for a more powerful brain that denied reality. The other tribes were soon toast and we took over the planet. We’re all close cousins. I love you all. Except the deniers.

Meaning comes from understanding why we can understand there is no meaning.

Way too many smart people with big reputations are wrong about everything that matters. Something’s gonna happen that gives them an excuse not to have to admit they were in denial.

The most precious and rare thing in the universe is the human brain. We have a cosmic obligation to use it.

Building a competition for maximum power on top of a finite energy source equals exponential build-out and collapse. — James @ MegaCancer.com

The fact that most believe in sustainable growth is proof that most are in denial.

Fire to cooking to intelligence to denial to god to plotting to capital punishment to self-domestication to Apollo 11 to 7 billion too many.

Nothing makes sense without the light of evolution and thermodynamics, and for one unique species that’s intelligent enough to understand both but chooses not to, you need to add denial to the list.

Lots of elephants in the room, but no adults.

A problem with a solution that does not require me to sacrifice anything does not require denial, unless the solution won’t work, like renewable energy.

And you, be you fruitful, and multiply; bring forth abundantly in the earth, and multiply therein. And you, so not to be distracted from my command, deny reality.

The masses have never thirsted after truth. Whoever can supply them with illusions is easily their master; whoever attempts to destroy their illusions is always their victim. — Gustave Le Bon

Labor without energy is a corpse. Capital without energy is a sculpture. — Steve Keen

Debt is a promise to produce more wealth in the future than we do today, so that we can consume more wealth today than we could without debt.

One way or the other, population will fall. One way is civil, the other is not.

There is hope, and there is delusion. Both are comforting, but only one is plausible. — Nehemiah

The Green Revolution has won a temporary success in man’s war against hunger and deprivation; it has given man a breathing space. If fully implemented, the revolution can provide sufficient food for sustenance during the next three decades. But the frightening power of human reproduction must also be curbed; otherwise, the success of the Green Revolution will be ephemeral only. Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the “Population Monster”. . . Since man is potentially a rational being, however, I am confident that within the next two decades he will recognize the self-destructive course he steers along the road of irresponsible population growth. — Norman Borlaug

Cells vote for whomever offers the best chance of fulfilling their dream of becoming two cells.

My brain is just “the Universe aware of itself – with consciousness along for the ride” and it’s perfectly satisfied with that. — AArgot

Energy is the economy. Money is a call on energy. Debt is a lien on future energy. — Art Berman

You can’t taper a Ponzi economy. — Max Keiser

If you do not understand energy, you understand nothing.

We couldn’t save the Arctic, the Amazon or the last piece of cheesecake so it looks like we won’t be able to save ourselves. The end. — James @ Megacancer.com

‘peak demand for oil’ is the economic equivalent of saying the reindeer on St. Matthew Island faced ‘peak demand for lichen’ — Nate Hagens

What keeps me going is that it’s just so damn interesting that 99% of 8 billion people selectively turn off their impressive intelligence when confronted with something unpleasant like overshoot, despite it being in-your-face obvious, including the recursive fact that denying overshoot makes the outcome even more unpleasant. It’s amazing!

MORT is required to explain why people who understands MPP cannot escape MPP.

We formulated the laws of thermodynamics at about the same time we decided they didn’t apply to humankind. — Norman Pagett

Facts are not repealed by refusal to face them. — William R. Catton

If an energy investment is producing net energy, it should not need a subsidy, not even the subsidy of going first. — Gail Tverberg

You can’t reason somebody out of a stance they weren’t reasoned into in the first place. — Robert Sapolsky

The behavior of economists differs from climate scientists in that idiocy explains the former and denial the latter.

The human species is a short circuit on the battery we call Earth.

There is no one driving the bus. — Nate Hagens

That we party of apes could do this much damage in a mere 200 years is quite an accomplishment. — Mandrake

The Neocortex lets us imagine our own mortality; the brain stem keeps us from believing it. — Dan Brooks

What’s worse than a vaccine that doesn’t work? A vaccine that only half works. — Will Thomson

Appetite grows with eating. — proverb

Funniest site tagline: “Previously dedicated to saving humanity from itself – but now it’s probably too late” — Lord Hugh R. Adumbass

The danger we face is in the denial of it. — Norman Pagett

Our standard of living (including food) is created by machines. Interest is the cost of buying machines, and energy is the cost of operating machines. As the cost of energy goes up due to depletion, the interest rate must go down for there to be enough profit to buy and operate machines, including the machines that extract energy. When the interest rate reaches zero, the machines will begin turning off.

Our growth constrained economy is like a bomb with a burning fuse and the only way to extend the fuse is to add more explosive (QE). Having evolved to deny unpleasant realities we can’t even discuss our energy constraints nor the implications of our response.

Totalitarianism is no worse than a democracy of idiots. — AJ

I apologize to a few of you for most of you. — God

How convenient that CO2 emissions will go to zero at about the same time there is no more fossil energy to burn. Net Zero 2050 will be the only climate change commitment we meet.

Idiots gonna idiot. Muppets gonna muppet. Rapacious primates gonna rapacious. — Kowalainen

Economists are confused about inflation, the thing they should understand better than anyone, because they do not distinguish between the price of stuff rising due to depletion vs. the price of stuff rising because the money supply is growing faster than stuff. When the stuff is energy needed to make other stuff they get really confused.

If incomes are insufficient to afford higher energy prices, because high energy prices are suppressing incomes, because low cost energy reserves are depleted, and debt is maxed out, then underinvestment in energy is not a choice. Planned degrowth vs. a chaotic collapse is a choice. But only if we first acknowledge our genetic tendency to deny unpleasant realities.

I frequently get wound up by the covid insanity sweeping the planet and then I step back and remember it’s nothing compared to our collective ignorance and/or denial about affordable fossil energy depletion and climate change which are serious, imminent, and real threats to everyone. We are not rational or wise about anything important. Why should covid be any different?

I used to believe we would build a sustainable equitable future by understanding ecology and biophysical limits, and by moving to organic farming. Now I’ll be pleased if my neighbors don’t eat me. — Jason Bradford

The best solution to climate change is to burn all of our remaining fossil energy as fast as possible mining Bitcoin because it’s a totally pointless activity that does not lead to growth. Then maybe the planet has a prayer. — Tim Garrett

If you look for truth, you may find comfort in the end; if you look for comfort you will not get either comfort or truth, only soft soap and wishful thinking to begin, and in the end, despair. — C.S. Lewis

I hate the phrase “vaccine hesitant”. I prefer “moron leader allergy”.

Fossil fuel humanity is not going to transition to gulag apartment dweller. It will burn brightly, then die. That goes for me and my partner as well. That’s just the way life is going to go, my friends. — notabilia

It is easier to fool people than it is to convince them that they have been fooled. — Mark Twain

Follow the covid money: 1) Politicians depend on pharma donations. 2) News & social media depend on pharma ads. 3) Scientists depend on pharma contracts. 4) Pharma CEOs depend on profit growth. 5) Regulators depend on pharma royalties.

The Ukraine conflict will accelerate the transition to renewables. Unfortunately most of the renewables will be trees that are close enough to homes to be chopped down with axes and transported with wheelbarrows.

People ask me if I think that there will be inflation, and I tell them that I don’t think that there will be anything to buy. That is a different kind of problem. — Gail Tverberg

Nobody ever hides good news. — Karl Denninger

Think of how stupid the average person is, and realize half of them are stupider than that. ― George Carlin

We’re shaking an unstable system that was already on the edge of collapse, and the monkeys in charge have stone age brains and nuclear weapons.

For a super intelligent species like humans to exist it must deny unpleasant realities so that an understanding of the meaning of life does not interfere with executing the meaning of life.

People can get Ph.D.s without knowing how the world really works. ― Gail Tverberg

Covid was an IQ test for 8 billion people. We failed.

One mistake by one emotional monkey and it’s all over.

We’re in a severe state of overshoot.
Abortions are safe and effective.
Make them mandatory after 1 child.
It’s the wise and humane thing to do.

Energy depletion is unsafe and effective at curing overshoot.

Adding money from politicians to science just creates political science. ― el gato malo

The human brain can’t comprehend a reality with no happy ending and a best case outcome of a less bad future.

Having many thousands of nuclear weapons and pretending we’ll never use them when food becomes scarce due to energy depletion and/or climate change is another example of genetic reality denial.

God makes dissipatives blind to the facts so they’ll finish their task. ― James @ Megacancer.com

Man’s most valuable trait is a judicious sense of what not to believe. ― Euripides

There’s no substitute for fewer and/or poorer people except denial.

How enjoyable is a fireworks show to a firework? ― Tom Murphy

I love the story that Peter Ward, Nick Lane and Ajit Varki tell about the improbable miracle of our existence as a uniquely intelligent reality denying religious fire ape with an extended theory of mind built from improbable eukaryotic cells on a rare planet with abundant improbable fossil energy alive to experience a scant 10 out of 13.7 billion years of what may be the peak complexity that is possible in the universe. Where else would you want to be?

Becker’s TMT is to Varki’s MORT as Newtonian physics is to Einstein’s General Relativity. Both do an excellent job of making predictions however the latter supersedes the former and provides a much more comprehensive and illuminating model of reality.

The object of life is not to be on the side of the majority, but to escape finding oneself in the ranks of the insane. — Marcus Aurelius

Wise leaders would have cancelled COP27 and convened POP1, a new conference on population reduction to address climate change PLUS the dozens of other overshoot calamities we face. Unwise leaders default to nuclear war to reduce the population.

MORT is a classic Catch-22 because MORT predicts that MORT will be denied and therefore if MORT is correct then MORT will never be acknowledged. I still value MORT because it keeps me sane by explaining why so many are so blind to so much that is so obvious.

Democracy is the pathetic belief in the collective wisdom of individual ignorance. — H.L. Mencken

Two back-to-back global events in which our leaders lied about everything and implemented policies that made no sense can be understood when viewed through the lens of imminent overshoot collapse. Covid was an attempt to prepare for the possibility of not securing the resources needed to resume growth, and Ukraine is an attempt to get the resources.

Peak oil isn’t the problem. Peak usage is the problem. If we can’t afford fossil fuels (i.e. insufficient net surplus) then fossil fuels will stay in the ground, no matter how much there is. — Norman Pagett

The woke smartest people in the room who will only eat non-GMO kale are waking up to the fact they GMO’d themselves, and are not only victims of a fraud that harmed themselves, but were duped into promoting harm onto others, including their own children. — David E. Martin

Meet Steven Pinker, whose denial of limits increases the likelihood of his worst fear: the end of the Enlightenment. — Jason Bradford

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